Photography by Kristof Ramon

Kreuziger’s public defence raises further questions about doping case

Puchowicz: “In Kreuziger’s case, you are going from a normal value to a very elevated one. A persistently elevated one”

By Shane Stokes

The denial had echoes of another rider who also previously worked with Michele Ferrari: Lance Armstrong.

On Saturday Roman Kreuziger released a statement, which began with these words.

“My name is Roman Kreuziger. I am a professional cyclist. I have never tested positive for doping.”

The statement went on to proclaim his innocence of the biological passport manipulations he is accused of by the UCI, but that opening section was redflagged by many on Twitter.

They wanted to know why Kreuziger had used the ‘never tested positive’ line oft quoted by Armstrong and other doping riders, rather than a clear statement that he had never used performance enhancing drugs.

Challenged about this on Twitter, Kreuziger or his representatives later amended the website statement to read: “I have never doped and never tested positive for doping.”

The shortcoming was a shot in the foot, though.

Questions are also being asked of the blood profiles Kreuziger put online to try to show he was a clean rider. These were published in response to suspected periods of blood doping.

He was first contacted by the UCI about this matter on June 28 2013 and provided the UCI with an expert analysis of those samples in October of last year. This explanation was rejected on May 30 2014.

He had a hearing before the Czech Olympic Committee on August 20 of this year; on September 22 that committee said it had decided to clear him. The UCI was not happy and appealed to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) on October 23.

No date has been announced as yet for that hearing, but the next round in the rider’s fight will happen sooner rather than later.

Blood levels raise questions:

The periods of alleged abnormalities run from March 2011 until August 2011 and from April 2012 until the end of the 2012 Giro d’Italia.

These are all included in the table of blood values published by Kreuziger, which runs from April 24 2008 until April 9 2013.

Further data is also included in a number of reports printed on his website, making it possible to determine values such as haematocrit [percentage of red blood cells] and reticulocytes [percentage of immature blood cells].

Haematocrit tends to rise after prolonged exposure to altitude, to the banned blood booster EPO and following an illegal blood transfusion.

Reticulocytes normally drop when the body experiences an increase in red blood cells, although microdosing EPO can fend off this fall or even cause an increase.

Examining the periods highlighted by the UCI as being suspect, a pattern is shown whereby the rider’s haematocrit levels behave differently than might be expected. Looking at the 2011 Giro d’Italia, which ran from May 7 to 29, tests taken just before the start, during the race and just over a week after the finish show an unusual pattern.

The values are 46.9 percent, 46.5, 43 and 48.4, as taken on May 5 [pre-race], May 20 [day of stage 13], May 29 [stage 21] and June 11 [post-race]. The reticulocytes for the same period are 1.52, 1.62, 1.78 and 1.66, all considerably higher than the average expected value of one percent.

That year’s Tour de France [July 2 – 24] is another period highlighted by the UCI as being of concern. Kreuziger’s haematocrit levels were 44, 44, 44.3 and 47.6 for June 30 [pre-race], July 15 [stage 13], July 20 [stage 17] and August 1 [post race], while the corresponding reticulocyte readings were 1.31, 1.45, 1.77 and 1.6.

The third stage race which falls within the UCI’s period of concern is the 2012 Giro d’Italia [May 5 – 22]. He did a pre-race test on May 3, then others on May 14 [stage 9], May 20 [stage 15] and May 24 [stage 18].

His haematocrit levels were 45.1, 43.2, 44.8 and 48.1 respectively, while his reticulocyte levels were 1.45, 1.44, 1.52 and 1.4.

Several points of note can be made about these levels. Firstly, Kreuziger displayed a jump in haematocrit either just after a three week Grand Tour or, in the case of the 2012 Giro d’Italia, actually during the race. His reticulocyte levels all appear relatively high.

Most studies suggest that haematocrit should fall over the course of a three week race as the body becomes more fatigued.

During the 2012 Giro, the substantial jump in haematocrit on stage 18 coincided with a drop in reticulocytes, and occurred one day after he cracked and lost a lot of time. Interestingly, though, the change in his blood parameters came one day before he rode extremely strongly and won stage 19.

In its CAS appeal, the UCI will presumably seek to show that Kreuziger underwent a blood transfusion. This would explain the jump in haematocrit, the drop in reticulocytes and also the increase in performance.

Kreuziger seeks to explain away blood fluctuations due to his claims that he has suffered from hypothyroidism [a sluggish thyroid gland] plus the resulting use of hormone replacement therapy L-Thyroxine.

In a statement on his website, he claims his innocence is shown because he did not cross certain thresholds. “I have never exceeded the basal values and did not even approach these values,” he writes.

“The Arbitration Committee of the Czech Olympic Committee cleared me of any wrongdoing in October of this year. The UCI have appealed to the Court of Arbitration for Sport in Lausanne and I am still threatened with a four year ban and a high fine.

“I condemn doping and cheating in sport. I consider the biological passport to be an excellent tool. However, clear rules for its use must be set out otherwise it is useless and can be used to eliminate anyone. Rules cannot be changed during a game. And that is what is happening now. What purpose do the basal values serve if mere suppositions are used to determine guilt?”

However arguing that basal values need to be crossed in order to trigger a biological passport procedure is misleading and inaccurate. The biological passport looks for unusual patterns over time, with the UCI obviously feeling that the fluctuations highlighted are sufficient to pursue a doping case.

“The odd part about it is that his reticulocyte count is elevated”

Dr Mike Puchowicz is a sports medicine physician for the Arizona State University Health Services, author of the Veloclinic blog and has long analysed sports performances from an anti-doping context. He is involved in the new Clean Protocol project which seeks to fight drug use in triathlon competition.

He spoke to CyclingTips about Kreuziger’s biopassport, and said that he had concerns. For him, the reticulocyte pattern is the primary warning flag.

“The odd part about it is that his reticulocyte count is elevated,” he said. “When you are talking about 2012, the question is what the hell was he using? If he had a blood transfusion [in the final week of the Giro, thus explaining the rise to a haematocrit of 48.1], it should have knocked his reticulocyte count down and it didn’t.

“I was expecting to see something a lot like Armstrong’s case, where the haemoglobin stays higher than expected, and then you get a reticulocyte count that you would expect from a micro-dose, a masking dose. But in Kreuziger’s case, the reticulocyte is elevated. So what was he using and why couldn’t they pick it up in retrospective samples?”

Puchowicz points out that Thomas Dekker was nabbed with such retrospective testing, but that Kreuziger doesn’t seem to have been caught in this regard. This troubles him as it suggests that there may be a product in use that the labs don’t have a test for.

“There are several months over the course of two years where he has got this very elevated reticulocyte count. All signs kind of point to doping from that perspective. But for me it is disturbing in terms of if it is doping, then look how bad the direct tests are. It points to it being something undetectable.”

Puchowicz also has questions about the rise in blood levels seen either right after a Grand Tour or, in the case of the 2012 Giro, in the final week of the race.

He points out that Kreuziger’s defence team cite a research paper by Corsetti based on the Liquigas-Cannondale riders in the 2011 Giro. This shows blood levels falling during the race but, in the case of four of the nine riders, a rise of sorts was seen before the end of the Grand Tour.

Puchowicz states that it is difficult to take the Corsetti paper as a guarantee of how the body responds, pointing out that the riders concerned could potentially have been doping themselves. He said that unless it is verifiable that the riders were all clean, that the study is a flawed one.

Lotto-Belisol rider Greg Henderson appears to believe a fall in haemoglobin is typical and expected. “I started 2012 tdf [Tour de France – ed.] at 46 and finished at 39 hct,” he said, then added somewhat sarcastically. “Would be nice to inc [increase] haematocrit during a GT.”

Could thyroid medication explain away suspicious blood readings?

A major part of Kreuziger’s defence is based on the thyroid medication he states he was taking. He said that his hypothyroidism condition was made clear to the UCI and that he had permission to use medication to treat it.

Puchowicz accepts that the medication could have caused some changes, but doesn’t appear to think this is sufficient reason to explain the fluctuating blood values plus the elevated reticulocyte count.

“The general gist is that, I guess from the perspective of his story about this being caused by the hypothyroidism and the treatment, I agree with the UCI on that one,” he said.

“I don’t really see that argument being very compelling because the study that his experts pointed to, they are talking about a change in reticulocyte count in terms of treating hypothyroidism. However that’s going from complete lack of thyroid function to being fully treated.

“In that study, you just see the subjects going from a low reticulocyte count to a normal one, so it is just normalizing the reticulocyte count.

“In Kreuziger’s case, what you are doing is going from a normal value to a very elevated one, and a persistently elevated one. It is not like he ever went from zero thyroid function to full blown treatment. Basically what you see in the labs is that he was being treated, maybe at times inadequately, but the jumps are going from 50 to 75 to 100 on his dosing. So it is not like he went from zero to 100, it was just incremental steps.

“In that case, I don’t find the thyroid issue very convincing. It can certainly have effects on the biological parameters, but I don’t find it is the explanation for his reticulocyte count.”

The Court of Arbitration for Sport will weigh up the various arguments and ultimately make the decision that will either clear Kreuziger or seal his fate. If he is cleared, he will be able to return to competition with the Tinkoff Saxo team. If he is found guilty of doping, however, he will face a lengthy ban and will also have to pay a large fine.

At this point in time the UCI and the Cycling Anti Doping Foundation are following their own rules about saying very little. CyclingTips sought comment from one of the UCI’s biological passport experts Robin Parisotto, but the Australian said that he was unable to comment on the case.

Kreuziger is taking a very different approach. He is making his arguments in public, using emotion to try to fight his corner.

“The proceedings have dragged on unbearably. I was forced to wait without reason for many long months for a statement from the UCI,” he said. “This year I was unable to compete in the Tour de France or other subsequent races. My career will soon be over, and dragging out this case could destroy it.

“I don’t ask for sympathy or leniency. I have always respected the principles of fair play, and as a competitor at two Olympic Games I respect the principles of the Olympic Charter. Today I find myself part of an absurd theatre, but tomorrow it could happen to any other athlete. I want a just process, I want clear rules and I want fair treatment. Keep your fingers crossed for me.”

For Puchowicz, this approach simply represents the rider trying to maintain support.

“It doesn’t surprise me from the perspective that he is really just playing to his fans,” he said. “He is kind of making a Horner move, saying ‘I have got nothing to hide, and my fans will back me.’ And I am sure they have, they will say ‘look, it is all there, and he has explained it.’”

That may suffice for his fans, but others who study his haematocrit and reticulocyte levels may come away with more questions than answers.

—

Also see: Anti-doping expert Parisotto on inherent delays in bio-passport system

Tags: biological passport, doping, Roman Kreuziger

choppy

yeah I agree with the poor guy, it has dragged out for too long. very sad…bollocks…. kick him out already. Cracks in a GT, values jump and then he wins a stage…wtf.
jules

my simple understanding is that if the reticulocyte count goes up with red blood cell count, this points to EPO use (which stimulates red blood cell growth - which reticulocytes are part of), while if the reticulocyte count goes down then that points to blood doping.

so on that basis - Kreuziger may have just been taking EPO. why is this controversial? haven’t we already established that athletes can mask EPO?
- Shane Stokes
  
  Hi Jules, what Mike P. is suggesting is that he may be using a blood booster that cannot be detected; could be a form of EPO-like substance for which there is no current test, or something else altogether. The point he makes is that if this is the case, then it is very worrying for the anti-doping movement.
RacingCondor

Shame the article doesn’t explain what the impact of the treatment for hyperthyroidism would be all that well. It sounds like that treatment would boost reticulocyte (at least) levels pretty effectively and he may have been using his TUE to boost them above normal levels (i.e. cheating (unfair advantage) within the letter of the law (TUE for a level of treatment above what he needs)).
Got to agree with choppy in general though, it does look unlikely to be all sweet and innocent.
- Bob
  
  I think the article actually answers your question - treatment “normalises” reticulocyte
  rather than raising it above normal levels:
  
  “I don’t really see that argument being very compelling because the study that his experts pointed to, they are talking about a change in reticulocyte count in terms of treating hypothyroidism. However that’s going from complete lack of thyroid function to being fully treated. “In that study, you just see the subjects going from a low reticulocyte count to a normal one, so it is just normalizing the reticulocyte count. “In Kreuziger’s case, what you are doing is going from a normal value to a very elevated one, and a persistently elevated one.
  - RacingCondor
    
    Sorry, I wasn’t really clear. By impact I meant how he might benefit from an artificially inflated reticulocyte level. i.e. what the relative benefits of boosting reticulocytes alone would be compared to EPO etc which by my limited understanding boost hematocrit as well as reticulocytes or infusion which would only boost hematocrit.
    In short I’m out of my depth and should have just stuck to reading the comments which by now probably explain that all pretty well (off to do that now).
Richard Bruton

While I don’t understand blood values, I do have an understanding of the thyroid, it’s effects and it’s medication. The medical record for his hypothyroid states his ft4 to be 15.33, the normal range for a healthy thyroid is 12-22. The dose he received was 100 micrograms daily of eltroxin, the synthetic replacement, which is quite high for that. I am on a dose of 150 micrograms daily as I have had my thyroid removed(meaning my natural ft4 score is 0, and with the synthetic is sits at around 18-19). While the thyroid can affect everyone different, to me it looks like he made good use of a doctor with a relaxed definition of underactive.

The thyroid’s ft4 score naturally goes down with intense exercise, and it looks like he may have used it to boost his recovery time and prevent weight gain.
- Jakub
  
  His values are indeed in normal range, as the blood test (on the website) is from 27.2.2014 - has been treated for subclinical hypothyroidism since 2003, so it is expected that the TSH/T4 values should be in normal range. Also, there was a debate in medical community what is a “normal” range for TSH values. Some authors proposed dropping the upper bound from 5 to 3 (most labs today use 4.1), as many cases in 3-5 TSH range might progress into clinical hypothyroidism (his value from the test is 3.17). The published medical report serves as a proof that Kreuziger’s hypothyroidism progressed from subclinical into overt. This is supported by a presence of elevated TPO antibodies and also by scan of the gland, that’s what the document reads in the Czech language.
kaweh

To me the “never exceeded basal values” sounds like aiming to establishing a precedent whereby if you stick to a fixed range within the bio passport system (albeit athlete specific), you would not have been doping. If this was the case, we could very well go back to the old hematocrit value rule and ignore whatever people do below that value, including riders like LA who I understand had a relatively low natural hematorcrit value.

From a legal perspective I am not quite sure what the burden of proof approach and requirements are under the bio passport system but if the system does not allow to pick up cases which show the pattern in question around his grand tour participations, it would essentially be useless since it would never pick up new doping methods, wouldn’t it?

I do enjoy the various explanations provided by the riders, though, even if Kreuziger’s is not as exotic as Tyler Hamilton’s vanishing twin explanation… :-)

Inrng wrote a good piece on the bio passport delays in connection with this case: http://inrng.com/2014/06/roman-kreuziger-uci-passport/
Kreuziger bounces back

The numbers look better than comments. Please, consider this fact alone: Kreuziger highest ever hemoglobin value in his pro times is 165 g/l, the lowest ever reticulocyte value is 0,68 %. These “pro career extremes” still give you off hr score 115. That´s not very “impressive” number.

Interpretation of the fluctuations of reticulocyte in range of 0,12% during the whole Giro 2012 as “a drop in reticulocytes” doesn´t look too accurate.

There is possibility to satisfy some one´s needs for GT winner with higher reticulocytes:
http://cavalierfc.tumblr.com/post/31376789644/captaintbag-expert-analysis-ryder-hesjedal

as well as lower reticulocytes:
http://www.outsideonline.com/outdoor-adventure/biking/road-biking/Chris-Horner-Bio-Passport-Raises-Doubts.html

Don´t hesitate to argue to the point.
Jakub

I do not find that surprising that his reticulocyte count is elevated, as there is lot of evidence (also in published literature) that substitutional therapy for hypothyroidism in form of L-thyroxine stimulates erythropoiesis (creation of new red blood cells) and hence elevates reticulocyte count. As the article says, if he would use blood transfusions his reticulocyte count would fall down. In his case, elevated retics might be because of the L-thyroxine therapy, as this was seen over longer period of time. Also, this rise is followed by rise in his hemoglobin values. Here is a link to a study that observes an increase in hemoglobin after L-thyroxine therapy (in otherwise healthy patients, no cancer or other diseases). http://omicsonline.org/the-effect-of-l–thyroxine-on-metabolic-parameters-in-newly-diagnosed%20primary-hypothyroidism-2161-1459.1000128.pdf. Altough the study did not observe reticulocyte counts, an increase in hemoglobin is usually followed by increase in reticulocytes. In my opinion, Kreuziger presents solid facts to support his defense.
- Paul Jakma
  
  I’m a curious observer, not an expert in this field, but I’m just wondering.. did you mean that haemoglobin increase would be *preceded* by reticulocytes elevation, rather than followed?
  - Jakub
    
    yes, that’s the usual response, first there is a rise in reticulocytes and that is followed by an increase in hemoglobin/RBC count/hematocrit.
Samaway

Puchowicz’s question is very revealing: it’s not whether Kreuziger was doping or not, but “what was he using and why couldn’t they pick it up in retrospective samples?” What would Foucault say?!
Nick Squillari

From Mike’s Veloclinic blog

‘But, the UCI/WADA really needs to deal with the Corsetti paper and consistent application of a Hb rebound/elevation in a Grand Tour as a sign of doping. Here we see the argument being made against Kreuziger. It has been made against Armstrong, as well as Landis. The same pattern has been ignored in the cases of the 4 Liquigas riders, Ivan Basso, Chris Horner, David Millar, and Brad Wiggins. In terms, of publicly available data that I am aware of, only Hesjedal and Vande Velde don’t show this pattern. This aspect of the bio-passport either works well enough or it doesn’t, time to decide whether to act on it or move on.’

http://veloclinic.tumblr.com/post/104141558388/kreuziger-defence-bullshit

It’s a very good point that he makes.
Salsalola Pistola

Haematocrit will rise after any blood transfusion, illegal or otherwise.
- jules
  
  tell me more about these ‘legal’ blood transfusions that riders may partake in, during a grand tour
  - A grizzly bear
    
    I think he’s on to something
  - Salsalola Pistola
    
    That was my point. The article suggests that Hct will only rise after an illegal blood Tx.
Raskoln

Why was nothing done regarding Chris Horner’s published blood values during his Vuelta win which doping experts were saying were very strongly suggestive of transfusion/doping?
- Shane Stokes
  
  Hi Raskoln, yep - did a big piece on that all right. One of the UCI’s bio passport experts implied concern about the numbers. It seemed likely from the US testing stats that Horner was being target tested by USADA, but obviously no bio passport procedure has been opened/announced. It’s interesting that he’s had such a battle to find a team, though. Despite his age, you’d imagine that he would have been able to find a place on a European squad.
  - A grizzly bear
    
    maybe some teams feel it’s only a matter of time until a case is opened against him.
  - Raskoln
    
    I suppose it might suggest the UCI have to consider the blood values incredibly damning rather than just ‘pretty damning’! to give them strong enough ground to take action - that now it’s a matter of ‘legal pragmatics’ rather than a lack of will by the authorities.
    My guess in response to grizzly bear is perhaps regardless of the likelihood of an actual case, in terms of public PR, apart from on a pretty considerable US fanbase, having Horner on one’s team wouldn’t look very good.
Bob

Great article.
- santiagobenites
  
  I agree, An excellent article, Shane.
  - Shane Stokes
    
    Thanks folks!
    - Jakub
      
      I beg to disagree. It would have been way more balanced article if an endocrinologist (ideally with no connection to cycling) would share his thoughts on Kreuziger’s blood values. Even though Puchowicz is MD (but not an hematologist/endcrinologist), in my opinion he is a bit biased as an author of his Veloclinic blog. He is indeed publishing interesting data and beliefs about doping in peloton, but still… He wouldn’t gain any publicity writing about how everyone these days is clean. I mean, all this might create (unconscious) bias to conclude that someone is indeed doping. Good analogy might be why scientists use double-blinded experiments - to eliminate similar type of bias.
      - Shane Stokes
        
        Jakub, in the interests of full disclosure: may I ask if you have any connection to Roman Kreuziger, his team or his defence, or indeed any other link?
        
        Jakub
        
        Hi Shane, no, I am not his fan, nor in his team or defence. I’m also not Czech. I am from Slovakia so I can read Czech language fluently, that’s why I was correcting some claims here and explaining what was written on the published medical documents. I have zero interest in a positive outcome of his case. My only interest in it is just because I am an avid cyclist and curious person ;). I am currently pursuing my PhD, hence I am able to read and understand scientific articles, from the very little research I did in my spare time the whole case doesn’t seem to me as either black or white - that’s what I presented in my previous comments here. To summarize it - in my opinion it might be plausible that fluctuation in his blood values is related to L-thyroxine medication. Indeed, there is also another possible scenario also outlined in article here - that he was using EPO-like blood booster.
        
        Shane Stokes
        
        Hi Jakub, thanks for that clarification. Mike Puchowicz (who is a qualified doctor) is satisfied that using the medication would restore RK’s hematocrit to a ‘normal’ level rather than actually elevating it further. That’s why he doesn’t believe the explanation is plausible. From my perspective, it’s difficult to accept the claims of anyone who worked with Michele Ferrari in the past, as RK has admitted. I tried to get a haemotologist to comment on the case but he said he couldn’t do so (he does some work for the UCI). RK has presented his own case on other sites so I think his own position is freely available.
        
        Jakub
        
        I am quite surprised that Puchowicz as a qualified doctor claims that using a medication would restore values to normal and not raise them further. According to this logic, if you would take EPO and you would not be anemic, your hematocrit would not change anymore. But as we know, indeed taking EPO can bring your hematocrit up even if you have normal blood count. The principle behind levothyroxine is the same - it stimulates erythropoiesis and hence has effect on blood values. That’s why I said it would be interesting to see an opinion from endocrinologist, who has first-hand experience with effects of hypothyroid treatments on blood profiles. RK’s rise in hematocrit during GTs is indeed not usual, but there were cases as this in the past. Blood transfusion would bring down number of reticulocytes, but that was not the case. Such rise (in relatively short time span) is also not very probable as an effect of EPO-like blood booster. More of a concern are persistently elevated reticulocyte/Hb counts, but these also coincide with an increase in L-thyroxine doses… I am aware of RK’s stance on other websites, but that was not my point.
        
        Paul Jakma
        
        Studying for a PhD in which field though?
Simon

Isn’t hematocrit also affected by hydration status? No mention here, but it seems like a fairly simple and plausible explanation of a rogue value during a Grand Tour, particularly after a bad day in the saddle.
- jules
  
  i’m pretty sure you can’t raise your hematocrit count by dehydrating yourself. from a lay perspective, it seems that hematocrit production occurs most when the body is healthy and rested. stressing it suppresses the production of red blood cells. this is why rising hematocrit values during a highly stressful grand tour makes observers raise their eyebrows. the simplest (if not only) way to do that is by doping.
  - Simon
    
    Hematocrit is just the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood, so it is significantly influenced by hydration status.
    - jules
      
      i understand. i suppose it’s possible, but i suspect there are other measures that can test for that (hemoglobin count, etc.) so i can only assume they control for that. also it’s pretty unlikely a pro like Kreuziger would allow himself to become dehydrated in a GT - he would have a team of domestiques and soigneurs keeping him nicely topped up.
      - Shane Stokes
        
        Hi folks, other blood factors can show if a rider is dehydrated or not. I understand that Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) is used for this.
        
        Simon
        
        That data (MCV) isn’t available though is it? Can we actually rule out dehydration? Regardless of the reticulocyte count.
        
        Shane Stokes
        
        Given that it’s part of the whole picture I’d be very surprised if this hasn’t been eliminated as a possible cause.
        
        simon
        
        Fair enough, but given that you haven’t appeared to have interviewed anyone offering the opposing side to the case, we can’t assume that can we?
        
        jules
        
        Shane wrote an article on the bio-passport process a while back. it’s pretty comprehensive, involving a panel of 3 experts assessing the case. it’s not an assumption to reason that they would account for basic stuff like dehydration.
        
        good on you Simon for being skeptical, but don’t fall into the trap of climate deniers - “i don’t understand it therefore i don’t believe it”. you need to accept that experts on the matter have likely (or certainly) accounted for this stuff.
- Paul Jakma
  
  that wouldn’t affect the retic %. No matter how much water you dilute your blood to change your haematocrit , it can’t change the proportion of the cells that are reticulocytes.
  - Shane Stokes
    
    Yes, exactly. His haematocrit goes up while his reticulocytes go down. Dehydration should see both rise but this doesn’t happen. Here are the numbers from the article: ‘His haematocrit levels were 45.1, 43.2, 44.8 and 48.1 respectively, while his reticulocyte levels were 1.45, 1.44, 1.52 and 1.4.’